Reconstruction of African Americans Dbq Essay Example for Free

Reconstruction of African Americans Dbq Essay New Societies, new people, and new communities usually originate as a result of migration. People decide to move from one place to another for better opportunities, better lives, and new challenges. This remains true for the African American race as well. It has been believed that the original migration took place in 1619 when African Americans arrived to Jamestown, Virginia. However, the first African Americans migrated to the United States almost a century earlier in the 1500’s coming from Mexico and the Caribbean to the Spanish territories of Florida, Texas, and other parts of the South. African-American Migration Experience Though many migrated to the U. S. voluntarily, most African Americans were victims of massive enslavement. War, slave raiding, kidnapping and political religious struggle accounted for the vast majority of Africans deported to the Americas. African Americans were forced into slavery. Many children were kidnapped and sold as slaves. There were those of which who rebelled by refusing to be enslaved that would be expelled from their homes and families then either murdered or forced to be slaves. Slavery developed because the Northern Africans had a monopoly over spices, gold, and other commodities that the Europeans wanted. Europe would send ships back and forth to Africa to trade goods and in the process they were able to grow comfortable with navigating the seas. As a result, Europe was able to develop very good shipbuilding skills that in turn led to the sending of large vessels. That moved the Portuguese to add an additional commodity to their cargo: African men, women, and children. The Portuguese then used African Americans as slaves to work their sugar plantations. Over time English and Dutch ships preyed on the Portugal vessels for slaves, while raiding and looting the African mainland. Slaves were brought to the United States of America during the triangular trade. Ships were built to handle a maximum of 350 people, but Europeans would transport over 800 men, women, and children under some of the harshest conditions. Slaves would be branded, stripped naked during the entire trip, lying down in the midst of filth, all while enduring unbearable heat. All slaves went through frightening, incredibly brutal and dehumanizing experiences. Women and children were raped for the pleasures of the crew. The sick were tossed overboard unto the sea. People who tried to starve themselves to death were forced to eat by the torturing of scolding hot coal pressed onto their bodies. African-American Migration Experience Those who survived the Middle Passage arrived to America only to encounter more grief. They were sent to plantations and farms for agricultural duties. They were used for mining, and placed in towns as servants. In South Carolina and Georgia they grew rice, cotton, and indigo. In Louisiana they slaved over sugarcane plantations. They labored over tobacco farms in Virginia and Maryland. This went on until 1808 when the United States abolished its slave trade from Africa. However, slave trade went on unabated until 1860. In 1898 the boll weevil ate its way through Texas and proceeded to eat its way East across the South. The cotton was destroyed and slaves were thrown off of the land. After WWI there was an economic boom that resulted in the need for agricultural work, but unfortunately most states in the South passed the Jim Crow laws that discriminated against African Americans and led to segregation. African Americans couldn’t attend the same schools as white Americans. They couldn’t use facilities such as restaurants, theaters, hotels, cinemas, and public baths. Public transportation was also segregated and in some states marriage between white and black people. African Americans were at the mercy of landlords, abusive employers, and almost anyone set on depriving them of their rights. This went on until president Franklin D. Roosevelt was forced to issue an executive order mandating the end to racial discrimination. The Fair Employment Practices Committee was created to enforce this mandate, which acted as the launching pad that would bare dividends in the future. Riots erupted in 1943, leading to beatings, deaths, and arrest. African American then resulted to boycotts and sit-ins during the Civil Rights movement. As a result, the Supreme Court reversed the separate but equal doctrine in 1954, ruling in Brown v. Board of Education. There was also the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act that signaled an attack on Jim Crow. The African-American Migration Experience This report reveals the enormous amount of pain, grief, and violence suffered by my ancestors during slavery. I am so appreciative to all those people who marched, boycotted, and endured the pain and suffering so that my children and I could have the freedom to eat in any restaurant, sleep at any hotel, drink water out of any fountain, and go to school to get a good education. I may not be able to relate culturally to the ethnic group that I have written about because I am way too young, but that doesn’t change the fact that I recognize what they fought and stood for and I plan to make sure that my children are taught the history of how African Americans migrated to the United States, and what they went through to get here. References In Motion. The African-American Migration Experience. Retrieved April 9, 2007, from http://www. inmotionaame. org/home. cfm.

Tawam Hospital History And Background Commerce Essay

Tawam Hospital History And Background Commerce Essay Tawam Hospital is a JCIA accredited hospital and considered to be a training and research hospital linked with UAE University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science. Tawam Hospital was opened officially on 17, December 1979 under the directions of the late H.H Sheikh Zayed who had chosen its location. The hospital is owned by Abu Dhabi Health Services (SEHA) and it is complied with the Health Authority à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ Abu Dhabi (HAAD). Tawam Hospital is a Middle East Center of Excellence for oncology care, Neonatal Intensive Care, and general ICU services in addition to outstanding patient care delivery programs in other specialties such as the home care services for elderly in addition to the baby friendly services that is recognized internationally (Docstoc, 2010). Tawam works to provide a quality health care services that meets the expectations of their patients because they promise to treat patients as part of their families as stated in their mission and vision (Tawam Hospital, 2010). The managerial practices At Tawam, the CEO office hold a weekly meeting for the A-Team members to negotiate the overall performance and issues related to all the hospital departments. Medical issues and concerns are discussed to seek a solution and guidance. Administrative issues are also negotiated like promotions, policies transfers and re-structuring. The hospital overall strategy is presented to allow all the departments to do the necessary actions to comply with it. In the past 2 years, the main objective of the A-Team meetings was to negotiate the plans and objectives on the construction of the new hospital building and the alternatives till the project finish. Current problems and difficulties The major difficulty that faces Tawam Hospital is the integration of the new Hospital Information System (HIS) with the lack of technology of our professional doctors. A comprehensive and planned training program for IT and computer basics was given to all the doctors prior to the implementation of the HIS that led to the success of the initial implantation of the project. Another major problem at Tawam is the conflict with SEHA regarding the internal policies at Tawam that prevent Tawam from taking independent decisions regarding the health care systems or the IT infrastructure. The new evolving role of HRM is the strategic management that is aligned with the corporate mission and goals in addition to performing the basic functionality of HRM. In other words, decisions related to employees should be analyzed to consider their effect on the organizations mission and goal accomplishment (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1999). What is manpower planning? According to BusinessDictionary.com, manpower planning is defined as estimating the required skilled personnel to accomplish work tasks overtime and specifying how and when they should be acquired. People are considered the most valuable assets for any organization, therefore; financial and technological assets cant give organizations a competitive edge without human capital. For our case, Tawam Hospital which is a healthcare organization, planning the human resource is classified according to the job context where there are different classifications like physicians or health care specialists, laboratory technicians and administrative staff. Mainly, for healthcare organizations, the manpower market is similar to other organizations labor market which is based on demand and supply. Healthcare organization demands for workforce are based upon the population demand for health care. Careful considerations of the population size and structure in addition to patients expectation of healthcare services and the society income and living standards should be considered while planning the workforce for any hospital (Bloor Maynard, 2003). Many factors affect the labor supply in healthcare organizations. Most healthcare professionals expect high incomes and have a special perceived social status in the society. Also the relation among healthcare professionals can be controlled by the skill mix they adhere and their usage of complements and substitutes in their work; and this can affect the supply of healthcare professionals based on the current available professionals in the field hospital (Bloor Maynard, 2003). Other factors may affect the supply in UAE like the labor law and the government regulations. At Tawam Hospital, the manpower planning is affected by the rules and regulations of SEHA where the all the departments needs to submit their business plan to HR and then HR sends them to SEHA for analysis, approval and budget estimations. When SEHA approves the business plans and the future positions, it sends them back to Tawam Finance to allocate the budgets for each new positions then the HR Director approves the plan, the manpower planning maintain the new positions in the database of the HRIS for each department. The hiring process cant be processed unless there is a vacant position for that requesting department. Sometimes the need for the position forces the manpower planning to find a way to create the position even if the department doesnt have a vacant position in the database. Sometimes they split/merge available positions to create the required position. For the medical departments, manpower planning used to suggest borrowing positions from department to department under the approval of both parties and the HR Director to cover the need for the new position. Manpower planning gives organizations a value in managing workforce diversity; and also adds an important effect in recruitment, employee retentions and development. Moreover, proper planning for workforce increases the quality of the corporate staff and hence improves the output services or products accomplishment (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 1999). At Tawam Hospital, the manpower planning provides a monthly study that identifies the number of filled/vacant positions within each section and department in the organization. Also the monthly report analysis the workforce diversity based on the number of national and non-national employees in each department. This report is sent to SEHA monthly to prepare the plan for the workforce yearly or help to made adjustment to the current plan. HR department is the only department in any organizations that affect all employees in all the different levels, therefore, Human resource planning is considered to be important because it can help organizations be more productive and cost-efficient. Human resource planning can help organizations to forecast their future needs of employees and also the expenses; where tactical plans are set based on long term forecasting that is aligned with corporate strategy to determine the required skills at the right time with the expected costs. Planning workforce helps also to minimize the corporate expenses to cut unnecessary jobs that can be accomplished by the available employees. The hiring process can be improved if HR plans well the recruitment process based on the forecasting and needs analysis, also the communication between HR department and line managers can help a lot in developing a good plan for what skills are required to accomplish the corporate goals (Schwartz, nd). HR planning helps organizations to estimate the types of KSA (Knowledge, Skills, Abilities) with their employees and how to utilize them efficiently. Also, good workforce planning helps organization to keep their employees by providing the good career development paths (Vareta, nd). At Tawam Hospital, the manpower planning performs many activities that serve the organization. One of those activities is called Reporting Structure Hierarchy which aims to identify who reports to whom using the HRIS database to assist in transferring or promotions activities. Another activity is called the Position Master Change PMC where requests for changing the position titles goes under the approval of HR to be reflected in the organization hierarchy in the HRIS. Promotions at Tawam should be identified initially by the manpower planning where they check if there is a vacant position for the department requesting the promotion and if there is a position, the manpower planning approves the promotion to enter the promotions committee; otherwise, the promotion is rejected. When the promotion is rejected, the merging/splitting positions may be a solution if the requesting department has other vacant positions or they can borrow positions from other department within the same divisi on under their approval. Approaches for manpower planning Rationalized approach Organization Strategy Targets Organization Practices Methods Manpower Review and Analysis Forecasting Internal External Demand Supply Adjust to Balance Recruit Retain Reduce Chart 1: The Rationalized Approach to Manpower PlanningPlanning is defined as the outcome of series of processes to find a solution to a problem. Rationalizing HR planning is done to provide easy methods to be followed to take decisions about choices of available alternatives before the implementation. Rational considerations of the issues surrounding the organization are the base for the rational model of manpower planning. In this approach, the organization strategy along with the implemented practices and methods to achieve the goals are considered when analyzing the manpower supply and demand based on the internal and external factors that affect the organization performance. SWOT analysis to determine the corporate strength and weakness and the surrounding market opportunities and threats helps in this approach to forecast future needs. Based on that analysis, decisions related to future recruitment, retention or even reducing the manpower can be taken easily to adjust the balan ce of the skills available(Bratton Gold, 2007). Diagnostic approach Chart 2: The Diagnostic Approach to Manpower Planning Manpower plans and policies Operations Monitored through Qualitative Quantitative techniques Understanding of causes Plan of action to control The diagnostic approach for manpower planning is based on the rationalized approach that aims to identify problems related to workforce using quantitative and qualitative techniques and also identify the causes for those problems. The ideal situation of manpower demands and supply doesnt exist in the real life where continuous imbalance between what skills needed and the market supply faces the organizations. Diagnostic approach of manpower planning can identify such problems with their causes. As illustrated in chart 2, identifying manpower problems is done through monitoring the operations using qualitative and quantitative techniques to understand their causes and prepare action plan to solve those problems (Bratton Gold, 2007). As mentioned earlier, the manpower planning receives the approved planned positions after the approval of SEHA, Finance department and HR director to open the positions in the HRIS only without producing a clear plan on the demanded manpower for the hospital. SEHA prepares the manpower plans based on the business plan developed by all departments of Tawam and after the analysis, they send their approval to the finance department of Tawam for budget allocation and process. Stages for human resource planning The planning for an organizational workforce requires a systematic procedure to be implemented that will assure getting the objectives of the manpower planning which is at the end helping the organization to achieve its goals using efficient human capital and resources. According to Bratton Gold (2007), the planning process for human resources involves four stages. Evaluation of existing manpower resources Estimation of the proportion of currently employed manpower resources that were likely to be within the firm by the forecast date Assessment of labor requirements Measures to ensure the needed resources are available when required The process defined by Bratton Gold, 2007 involves the process of forecasting the supply in the first two stages, and forecasting the demand in the third stage and then developing the plan to utilize the human capital when needed in the past stage. Priyadarshini (2009) had proposed another manpower planning process that has four different stages: Analyzing the current manpower inventory Making future manpower forecasts Developing employment programs Design training programs According to Priyadarshini (2009), the demand forecasting for new skills of workforce should be done after analyzing the overall organization business nature, its department and employees skills and quantities within each department. After analyzing the available human resources and future forecasts, procedures for employment programs can be settled through the prober selection and placement plans. Training programs will be designed and planned according to the new market trends in technology and also based on the available skills that need to be enhanced or developed according to the analysis result of the first stage. At Tawam, the manpower planning produces monthly reports that help SEHA to analyze the business plan of the hospital to plan the required workforce for the next year. At 2008 a complete analysis of the manpower planning was developed by one staff of the manpower section as an assignment for the probation period evaluation. The plan was on the medical departments to examine the number of patients in each clinic and how many consultants or physicians available and needed in the upcoming year. Indeed, that was an individual effort that doesnt reflect the actual practice because the manpower forecasting and planning is controlled by SEHA not the hospital. Internal external factors affecting healthcare human resource planning Healthcare supply and demand processes for human resources are influences by two factors: the first factor is its narrow approach in its focus that leads to focus only on medical practitioners ignoring the fact of the inter-relations or the substitutions possibilities of other medical fields like the nursing. The second factor is that it had a mechanistic approach with supply side driven (Bloor Maynard, 2003). Healthcare resource planners estimate the supply of medical practitioners graduated from medical schools or migrated to the country ignoring the behavioral changes of their career paths. Chart 3: Healthcare practitioners supply factors Tawam hospital manpower planning is affected externally by the labor low that enforces the approval of the private sector medical center of the new hires to work at Tawam. Also the planning at Tawam is affected internally by the departmental business plans which determine what is requires and by the available allocated budget from SEHA that forces the hospital to freeze the recruitment for a while. Recommendation: Since the manpower planning is controlled by SEHA based on the budget and departmental business plan, Tawam manpower planning can analyze the departmental business plans and provide the complete plan for the required workforce with their budget estimation instead of wasting the time waiting for the approval from SEHA. The monthly report or study should be linked to the HR theory to be more valid and also it should include suggestions on how to re-plan the workforce not just figures and numbers. Resources: Schwartz, Rick, nd. Importance of Human Resource Planning. Retrieved on: 10/April/2010 from: http://www.ehow.com/about_6130541_importance-human-resource-planning.html U.S. Office of Personnel Management, Office of Merit Systems Oversight and Effectiveness, 1999. Strategic Human Resources Management: Aligning with the Mission. www. BusinessDictionary.com Bloor, Karen Maynar, Aland, 2003. Planning human resources in health care: Towards an economic approach, An international comparative review. University of York. Vareta, Nyamupachari, nd. Importance of Human Resources Planning in Organizations. Retrieved on: 11/4/2010 from: www.coursework.info Bratton, John and Gold, Jeff, 2007. Human Resource Management, Theory and Practice, 4th edition. M Priyadarshini, 2009. Manpower planning in organizations. Retrieved on 24/4/2010 from: http://www.articlesbase.com/human-resources-articles/manpower-planning-in-organisation-1399674.html#axzz0lxChq8Mf Karen Bloor, Alan Maynard, 2003. Planning human resources in health care: Towards an economic approach- An international comparative review. University of York. Tawam Hospital, 2010. Retrieved from: www.tawamhospital.ae, on1/May, 2010. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/DownloadDoc.aspx?doc_id=29675768, on1/May, 2010.

scarlet letter :: essays research papers

The author of this novel, Nathaniel Hawthorne, is mostly known for his unique and descriptive writing style. In The Scarlet Letter, he describes his disapproval of the leading character’s morals clearly. For example, before Hester Prynne emerges from the cold and dark prison, she is scorned by a group of women who believe in a harsher punishment for Hester. Meaning, instead of being made to stand on the scaffold bearing the scarlet letter on her bosom, they suggest that she â€Å"she should be put to death or have it branded into her skin, precisely on her forehead.† Since early times, Puritans have had the reputation for strong discipline, their religious beliefs, and harsh punishment for those defying their beliefs. The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne is a novel that portrays the Puritans as cold and unfeeling.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Puritan’s feelings were so lacking of compassion that â€Å" they were stern enough to look upon her death†¦without a murmur†¦but had none of the heartlessness of another social state.† This quote depicts that when the public is faced with a death of a sinner, they would absolutely have no reaction what so ever. These worries and concerns are focused on a passage in chapter one in which Hester is being nagged by a harsh group of women. The one woman, perhaps the ugliest of them all, goes too far in advocating the death of Hester due to jealousy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nathaniel’s tone reveals how he feels towards the Puritan society. He begins early in the novel by describing the Puritans as â€Å"being of the most intolerant brood,† stating the lack of understanding they had toward one another. Finding out about Hester and her beautiful baby Pearl, the town at once without any word from Hester filled their hearts with hatred towards the two. â€Å"Meager, indeed, and cold was the sympathy† that the Puritans offered against Hester in her vulnerable moments aloft the scaffold. Again, Hawthorne’s choice of words indicates his harsh tone towards Puritanism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nathaniel Hawthorne shows again that the Puritan society as cold and unfeeling in his descriptions of Roger Chillingworth and his reaction to relationships. In his search for revenge, Chillingworth responds to his adultery prone wife by sacrificing his life in order to figure out her secret lover. He used be a scholar but now is disguised as a doctor who put forth his best years, â€Å"to feed the hungry dream of knowledge,† but now he is out for something else, revenge on the one man who made love to his wife.

Elaboration Likelyhood Essay -- essays research papers

Elaboration Likelihood 2 Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Recently the nation was bombarded with political ad campaigns of all shapes and sizes. There were the ads for and against succession, the ads that attempted to show Gray Davis as someone who could actually run the state of California, and the ads that didn’t really seem to have any purpose at all. It is obvious that each of these campaigns was focused on a specific target audience. What may not have been so obvious was that each of the ad campaigns was also based upon the involvement or interest of the voters (Perloff, 1993). This involvement or interest is a component of the Elaboration Likelihood Model. This theory helps advertising consultants decide what elections are important to voters and what elections have no relevance to anyone but lawmakers (Perloff, 1993). Important elections, such as the gubernatorial race will have strong arguments and depth while not so significant elections, such as the clean water initiative will rely on cues that are undem anding in terms of the amount of brain power used (Perloff, 1993).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The application of the Elaboration Likelihood Model to political campaigns is just one of the many practical uses of this theory. But before it is possible to examine other possible applications of the ELM, one must understand the basic ideas and factors that make it work. After a clear understanding of the ELM is devolved it will be shown in relation to the specific communication perspective that it fits into, and then used to evaluate a real life situation. Subsequent to the evaluation of the practical application the ELM will be scrutinized and summed up, but first the basics. Description of Theory   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Elaboration Likelihood 3 The elaboration likelihood theory was created by two social scientists, Richard Petty and John Cacioppo, who sought to create a model of persuasion that was more inclusive in terms of the range and depth in which the theory covered (Perloff, 1993). Petty and Cacioppo’s theory is a culmination of their research in the area of â€Å"cognitive responses to persuasion† and theories of attitude change (Perloff, 1993, p. 118). The ELM is a theory of persuasion with a central premise that seeks to explain how deeply an individual will elaborate the arguments of a persuasive message by examining the ind... ...ovements. First of all, Perloff (1993, p. 132) makes the point that there should be more consideration of â€Å"situational and personality factors that might interact to influence the processing strategy.† Perloff (1993, p. 132) also would like to know â€Å"how do people simultaneously process central and peripheral information?† Elaboration Likelihood 10 References Bargh, J. A. (2002, September). Losing Consciousness: Automatic Influences on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consumer Judgment, Behavior, and Motivation. Journal of Consumer Research,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  29 (2).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Littlejohn, S. W. (2001). Theories of Human Communication. Albuquerque, NM:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wadsworth. Perloff, R. M. (1993). The Dynamics of Persuasion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Eribaum   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assoc. Sereno, K. (2002, Fall). Comm 200: Communication as a Social Science. Lecture Notes. Stephenson, M. T., Benoit, W. L., Tschida, D. A. (2001). Testing the Mediating Role of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cognitive Responses in the Elaboration Likelihood Model. Communication   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Studies, 52 (4), 324-338.

How did the Cold War begin Essay

The Cold War was â€Å"the struggle for global power between the United States and the Soviet Union following World War II† (History book, pg. 874). The Cold War began by controversial wants and needs from two different countries and several different â€Å"weapons† were used to fight this controversial war. The feuds eventually kept building up, greater and greater, resulting in one great war. Two countries, the United States and the Soviet Union both took part in fighting. The Cold war began for a number of different reasons. One of the main reasons this war began was that there were huge differences in the way that the Soviet and the US led one another and the disagreements eventually reached a final rising point, causing several feuds as well, riots. The US was a democratic state where many parties could stand and elections were held. It was a fair and politically correct policy for everyone. â€Å"I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted domination by armed minorities or outside pressure.† (DBQ 2) The Soviet was a communist state, where the political party controlled the state. The people basically had no free will. More reasons as to how the Cold War started up would be affected by the mistrust between the two countries. It started as far back as the October Revolution of 1917. When the communists came to power, they created harsher ways of ruling their country, which angered the US greatly. One last reason on how the Cold War came about was the US fear of Russian expansion. In 1922, Russia combined with five other states creating the Soviet Union. In 1936 five more states joined forming an even larger Soviet Union. Eventually the Soviet Union had almost equaled the size of Europe. â€Å"All these famous cities and the populations around them lie in the Soviet sphere†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (DBQ 1) The US feared a new uprising of a strong, independent, and powerful country. â€Å"I need to say that the world situation is very serious†¦ Europe must have a great deal of additional help, or face heavy economic, social, and political damage.† (DBQ 3) During the Cold War there weren’t really weapons used during the war. Going back to the term â€Å"Cold War,† it referenced to not having the war getting â€Å"heated† with weapons of mass destruction etc. No Nuclear, Biological or Chemical weapons were used during this Cold War. Instead, the countries fought up front, or in some other type of not so violent way. However, during the Cold War, there were some new weapons that were created from both sides. During this period, the Soviet Union created their own atomic bomb and the H-Bomb (Hydrogen Bomb) was first created in the United States. These two weapons of mass destruction were not used, better suggesting the phrase, â€Å"Cold War.† If by any means there were to be a weapon of mass destruction aimed at the opposing enemy, then the country responsible for the cause would have to help restore, and fix any damages caused. â€Å"They agree that if such an armed attack occurs, each of them will assist the party or parties so attacked.† (DBQ 4) The Cold War was a five year war against the Soviet Union and the United States. These two Communist and Democratic countries had very different views and ways of ruling their citizens. One feared of expansion, the other feared of the opposing differences. However, they both agreed on keeping the war at a minimum by agreeing to not allow weapons of mass destruction, etc. to come into the war. Hints to the term â€Å"Cold War.†

Discrimination against Ainu in Japan

The Ainu are a group of people in northern Japan whose traditional life was based upon a hunting-fishing and plant-gathering economy. Starting from the eighteenth century the Ainu suffered the systematic encroachment and subsequent colonization by the Japanese. After the Ainu Shinpo (new law) was enacted in 1997, there were some positive changes seen by Ainu people in Hokkaido. However discrimination against the Ainu still is a major social problem in life of indigenes.In this paper we will investigate the conflicting narratives of identity, history and contemporary reality. While broadly tracing the outlines of Ainu history and the colonisation of Hokkaido, the main focus is on the making and remaking of Ainu identity by both the dominant Japanese and the Ainu themselves. By focusing on the dynamics between racialisation and ethnic mobilisation within the context of colonial relations of domination, we will consider Ainu ‘ethnicity’ as a response to racism.Discriminatio n against Ainu in Japan The Ainu, descendants of the early inhabitants of Japan, were slowly driven off the main island over the years and eventually settled in Hokkaido. Accounts of the campaign to conquer the Ainu appear in historical records as early as the eighth century. The office of the shogun was originally established to subdue the â€Å"barbarians,† meaning the Ainu (Nomura, 1996). In the Tokugawa period, for instance, the Tokugawa shogun granted trading rights to one of the northern feudal lords.The feudal domain gradually tightened its economic control over the island, reducing the native Ainu to a condition of semislavery and compelling them to harvest marine products (FRPAC). Although only about eighteen thousand of the Ainu now live in Hokkaido, the northernmost island of Japan, this population was much larger in the past and their homeland included at least southern Sakhalin, the Kurile Islands, northern parts of Honshu (the main island of Japan), and adjacent areas.Despite outsiders' frequent use of the blanket term â€Å"the Ainu,† Ainu culture was rich in intracultural variations (Seligman & Watanabe, 1963). Not only was their hunting-gathering economy vastly different from that of their agricultural neighbors (the Japanese, Koreans, and Chinese), they spoke a language of their own, and some of their physical characteristics were thought to distinguish them from their neighbors. The question of Ainu identity continues to press today without a definitive answer (FRPAC). The Kurile Ainu were the hardest-hit victims of the Russians and the Japanese; the last of them died in 1941.Sakhalin south of 50 ° N had been the homeland of the Sakhalin Ainu, while the territory north of 50 ° N belonged to the Gilyaks and other peoples. The Sakhalin Ainu, estimated to have been between 1,200 and 2,400 in number during the first half of the twentieth century, most likely moved from Hokkaido, possibly as early as the first millennium A. D. , but definitely by the thirteenth century (Nomura, 1996). They were in close contact with so-called native populations both on Sakhalin and along the Amur, such as the Gilyaks, Oroks, and Nanays.The history of contact with outsiders is equally complicated for the Hokkaido Ainu, whose territory once included north-eastern Honshu. As the Japanese central government was formed and its force expanded toward the northeast, the Ainu were gradually pushed north away from their territory (FRPAC). Systematic contact between the Ainu and the Japanese started at the end of the sixteenth century with the establishment of the Matsumae clan, which claimed as its territory the south-western end of Hokkaido and the adjacent areas.In 1799 the Matsumae territory in Hokkaido came under the direct control of the Tokugawa shogunate for the purpose of protecting Japanese interests against Russian expansion southward. Administrative control changed again in 1821 to the Matsumae and then back to the shogun ate in 1854 (Nomura, 1996). Most drastic and enduring changes took place shortly after the establishment of the Meiji government in 1868. It brought Hokkaido under the central government's direct administration and set out to foster Japanese settlements and develop the island's economy.The Ainu lost their land and their hunting and fishing rights. In order to Japanize the Ainu, the government banned traditional Ainu practices and forced Ainu children to learn Japanese in the school system (Layland, 2000). In 1875 the central and northern Kuriles came under the political control of the Japanese government, which made several attempts to â€Å"protect† the Ainu, but without success and often with adverse effect upon them (Nomura, 1996). The new government abolished the residential restriction for both the Ainu and the Japanese, who could then live anywhere in Hokkaido.It also encouraged the Japanese to immigrate to Hokkaido in order to utilize its natural resources. The Ainu we re enrolled in the Japanese census registers and forced to attend Japanese schools established by the government. Beginning in 1883, the Ainu were uprooted from their settlements, granted plots of land more suited for agriculture, and encouraged to take up agriculture (Layland, 2000). In the post-World War II years, a movement among the Ainu to preserve their culture, language, and way of life emerged.The leadership of the Ainu Association of Hokkaido has requested the Japanese government to guarantee the basic rights of the Ainu people and respect their cultural and ethnic identity (Layland, 2000). Just as the Ainu contacts with the Japanese went through a series of historical changes, so did the Japanese attitude toward them. Since the Ainu homeland is located in what used to be Japan's northern frontier – a hinterland for many Japanese until recently – the Ainu stood outside of the reflexive structure of the Japanese during earlier historical periods.By the eighteen th century, however, the Ainu had clearly become one of the marginalized internal others within Japanese society (Nomura, 1996). Historical agents directly involved in this process were the Japanese governmental officials of different historical periods and the Japanese in the Ainu land. They viewed and represented the Ainu as uncivilized or primitive. But the primitive always have another side — for some Japanese, especially those in parts of Japan distant from the Ainu homeland, the Ainu were and are even today the exotic other.This is especially so with Ainu women, living in â€Å"nature,† whose â€Å"deep-set eyes† had exotic sexuality – a familiar picture in almost every case of colonial-colonized or majority-minority relationship (Nomura, 1996). The Japanese perception and representation of the Ainu are most systematically expressed in a series of Ainu – Japanese artists' portrayals of the Ainu and their lives that appeared during a period of a little more than a century, from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the midnineteenth century, that is, at the height of Japanese efforts to colonize Ainu territory.The hallmarks of otherness depicted in these paintings include hunting scenes, the bear ceremony, women's tattoos, men's body hair and beards, and Ainu use of jewellery. In contrast to the Japanese, whose deities are primarily plants, the supreme deity of the Ainu is the bear – a sign of Ainu proximity to animals. The association the Japanese made between the Ainu and animals is also seen in their painstaking representations of the bodies of Ainu.The Japanese, who do not have much body hair, often point to the abundant body hair of the Ainu, as well as of Westerners, and use it as â€Å"evidence† that these people are close to animals (Layland, 2000). The dispossession of the Ainu, which had largely been accomplished by 1890 through the expropriation of Ainu land (and fishing grounds) as the prim ary economic resource on which colonial development was based, was institutionalised by the enactment of the Protection Act of 1899 (Nomura, 1996).With the Law for the Protection of Native Hokkaido Aborigines, a policy of assimilation was forced upon the Ainu. As a consequence, their social structure and living environment went through a number of drastic changes as restrictions were put on their customs, language, and means of livelihood. The 1899 law contained new land policies that violated the Ainu's territorial integrity. It banned traditional subsistence strategies such as deer hunting and salmon fishing, and also forced the Ainu to cultivate rice for the Japanese mainland.The law also prohibited the practice of ancient Ainu customs and Ainu languages; with no writing system of their own, these prohibitions furthered the cultural destruction of Ainu society. There has also been a high rate of marriage between Ainu and Japanese that has contributed further to the erosion of the Ainu language and culture. It is not surprising, then, that traditional Ainu society had been largely destroyed by the beginning of the 20th century. In the last 100 years, Ainu traditional lifestyles have largely disappeared, and their rights have been overlooked within Japanese society.The traditional Ainu settlement – kotan – can no longer be seen, and the traditional grass thatch Ainu huts – chise – are almost non-existent, the exceptions being tourist areas where music and dance performances or handicraft souvenirs are offered (Weiner, 1997). The Protection Act focused on three main areas of Ainu policy: agriculture, education and welfare assistance, notably in the area of medical care. Ainu families engaged, or wishing to engage, in agriculture were to be granted up to five hectares of undeveloped land as an allotment (kyuyochi) without charge (Article One).This did not mean full rights of ownership; various restrictions were placed on the transfer of the allotments which could not be sold or used to secure a mortgage, although they were exempt from land registration fees, local tax and land tax for thirty years (Article Two). Land not developed within fifteen years, however, would be repossessed (Article Three). Agricultural tools and seeds were to be made available for needy families (Article Four). Education was to be provided through the medium of special Native Schools (Kyudojin gakko) to be constructed at national expense in Ainu villages (Article Nine).Financial assistance was available for school fees (Article Seven). For the destitute, sick, and people too old or too young to support themselves, medical fees would be paid. Funeral expenses were also covered (Articles Five and Six). Some of the money for these measures was to come from the profits of Ainu communal property, which was under bureaucratic control, the rest from the national treasury (Articles Eight and Ten). Article Eleven empowered the Governor to issue â€Å"police orders†Ã¢â‚¬â€fines and periods of imprisonment—with regard to protection matters (Weiner, 1997).Later, in the 1950s and 1960s, interest in ethnic tourism and in the Ainu people began to grow. This raised questions about the substance and meaning of Ainu cultural identity in relationship to the culture and identity of the more numerous Japanese. The image of Ainu with their traditional costumes and exotic facial features became increasingly prevalent through the development of tourism. Group photographs taken with Ainu chiefs in traditional costumes reflected the fascination with difference within the Japanese population.Many touristic souvenirs comprised Ainu bear woodcrafts and â€Å"couple dolls† (Kindaiti, 1941). Thus, the increase in post-war tourism, and its focus on the Ainu as commodity and symbols of indigenous Japan, contributed in a positive way to some modest revitalization within the Ainu community, but also raised question about thei r position in the social and political hierarchy of Japan (Weiner, 1997). The existence of the Ainu is virtually ignored elsewhere in the society, most conspicuously in the classroom.A report conducted in 1993 showed that only ten out of twenty high school Japanese history textbooks mentioned the background of contact between the Ainu and mainstream Japanese and the assimilation policies forced upon the Ainu since the nineteenth century; only four mentioned the Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act (Weiner, 1997). However indigenous rights are becoming more widely discussed and cultures of indigenous peoples are becoming recognized throughout the world, the Ainu indigenous movement has also been raised to the international level, urging constitutional reforms to expand their leverage, recognition and rights at home.In 1993, the year before the International Year of the World's Indigenous People, Nomura Giiti, the President of the Ainu Association of Hokkaido, was invited to part icipate in an international meeting organized by the United Nations (Layland, 2000). In his speech, Nomura shared Ainu concerns with other indigenous groups, including the experience of the Ainu under the Japanese government's policy of assimilation after the late 19th century. He called for the United Nations to set international standards against discrimination and support the Ainu people in negotiating with the Japanese government.The Ainu Shinpo (meaning â€Å"new law†) was drafted and proposed in 1984, and finally passed on 8 May 1997. It states that: The law aims to realize the society in which the ethnic pride of the Ainu people is respected and to contribute to the development of diverse cultures in our country, by the implementation of the measures for the promotion of Ainu culture, referring to the situation of Ainu traditions and culture from which the Ainu people find their ethnic pride †¦ â€Å"Ainu Culture† in this law means the Ainu language; music, dance, rafts and other cultural properties that have been inherited by the Ainu people; as well as other cultural properties developed from these (Weiner, 1997). Thus, the Japanese government had finally given limited formal recognition to the Ainu as the indigenous minority within Japanese territory, at least in Hokkaido. The general reaction from the Ainu at the time of the endorsement of the new law was that it was â€Å"late in coming and did not include enough concrete change†.Yet with this initial step, both Ainu and Japanese people assumed and expected more cultural preservation of language and traditions, as well as legal protection for traditional land use, anti-discrimination policies, and a general improvement in Ainu social status. After the Ainu Shinpo was enacted in 1997, there were some positive changes seen by Ainu people in Hokkaido. They saw an increase in financial support for various kinds of cultural activities; and conference, exhibition, and cultural e xchanges with other indigenous groups in other countries increased.This provided the Ainu with opportunities to enhance their â€Å"indigenous† status in Japan, and to build contacts and share information with indigenous people around the world (Layland, 2000). With the enactment of the Ainu Culture Promotion Law, the Japanese government took a significant step towards officially acknowledging the existence of the Ainu as an ethnic minority. The law is Japan's first legislation to acknowledge the existence of an ethnic minority in the country and, unlike the Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act which the new law replaces, the Ainu were involved in the process of its enactment.This preliminary move, however, stopped short of recognising the Ainu as an indigenous people as defined by the United Nations. The Hokkaido Ainu thus remain virtually invisible in a country they have inhabited for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. One venue that plays a vital role in the repres entation of the Ainu in Japan today is ethnic tourism, which centres on tourist villages scattered across Hokkaido (Layland, 2000).The Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture (FRPAC) was established in 1997, almost at the same time as the enactment of the Ainu Shinpo. The FRPAC started with an endowment of JPY100 million (of which JPY 90 million is from the Hokkaido government and JPY 10 million is from 62 municipalities in Hokkaido that include Ainu residents) allocated to support diverse activities (FRPAC). With their two offices in Hokkaido and Tokyo, FRPAC operates under the four basic policies in promoting Ainu cultural traditions in Japan and the rest of the world (Weiner, 1997).During the past few years, FRPAC's work has included providing different kinds of publications such as textbooks for primary and junior high schools, a handbook on place names (terminology) in Ainu language with relevant elaboration. Also, exhibition catalogues, monographs on Ainu history and culture (in different languages) for Japanese and foreigners, as well as other related materials, have been published with the support of FRPAC. A number of comprehensive exhibitions were co-sponsored by overseas institutes for the enhancement of public interest in Ainu culture in Japan (Weiner, 1997).According to the 1999 population survey, the percentage of Ainu students who attended high school was 95. 2%, that rose up from 69. 3% in 1979, and the percentage that went on to college was 16. 1%, from 8. 8% in 1979. These figures are lower than the 1999 national average figures of 97. 0 and 34. 5%, respectively (Layland, 2000). Despite some improvement during the last three decades, further reduction of the education gap will be necessary for the improvement of the Ainu's social status.Since the changes that occurred after the 1997, Ainu culture is now facing another critical period. The survival of Ainu culture, whatever form it will take, depends on how the indigenous rights of Ainu are interpreted at both individual and national levels; on how seriously the Japanese government implements the laws protecting indigenous and minority rights and cultural heritage; and on whether Ainu as â€Å"other† remain important to the Japanese in the articulation of their identity (Weiner, 1997).The Ainu Shinpo and institutions such as the Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture, already represent a step in a new direction in Ainu – Japanese relations. The cultural park establishment as well as the reterritorialization of the iwor (traditional hunting ground of the Ainu) (in Hokkaido at least), represents another concrete and progressive measure allowing the Ainu private control of their natural resources, reaffirmation of their identity, and legitimization of their lifestyle and customs.Despite continuing challenges, we are sure to see new cultural forms generated from the interaction between Ainu self-determination and the larger Japanese society (Layland, 2000). Doubtlessly, what has changed most since the 1997 is the awareness among the Ainu that they need to preserve their cultural traditions for their descendants (Weiner, 1997). However, as stated above, there remain so few Ainu who are able to speak Ainu as their mother tongue, and most are no longer practicing their traditional ways.As in the case of other ethnic minority groups around the world, the Ainu in Japan require an environment in society in which they can express how they think and ask for what they expect. I think that exhibitions in Ainu museums, broadcast programs for Ainu language and cultural exchanges in the form of performing arts have to be organised today. Then Ainu culture will be more visible and give people the impetus to think about what it means to be Ainu. The Ainu should adapt to modern ways since it is not easy or feasible to live in the old ways.

Entrepreneurial Leadership

Using the WileyPlus resources, go to the Interactive Case Study â€Å"Five Guys Burgers and Fries: Ingredients for Success† example located in Chapter 3. To access the entire textbook, use the WileyPLUS Read, Study & Practice link located in the Student Center. Write a three to four (3-4) page paper in which you: 1. Determine how Five Guys’ philosophy sets it apart from other fast-food chains. 2. Analyze the original values for the start-up company and how it remains strong today. . Enumerate three (3) factors that contributed to Five Guys’ success in such a short time and what effect, if any, external markets had on these factors. 4. Assess how ethical and social practices are part of the Five Guys’ culture and provide examples to support your choices. 5. Use at least five (5) quality academic resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not quality as academic resources. Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements: Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions. †¢Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length. The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are: Examine the private enterprise systems, drivers of change on the system, ethical and social responsibilities of business, and the requirements for success in today’s business environment. †¢Analyze the factors that drive supply and demand, different types of market structures in a free enterprise system, and factors of stability in a nation’s economy. †¢Use technology and information resources to research issues in contemporary business. †¢Write clearly and concisely about contemporary business using proper writing mechanics. Entrepreneurial Leadership Using the WileyPlus resources, go to the Interactive Case Study â€Å"Five Guys Burgers and Fries: Ingredients for Success† example located in Chapter 3. To access the entire textbook, use the WileyPLUS Read, Study & Practice link located in the Student Center. Write a three to four (3-4) page paper in which you: 1. Determine how Five Guys’ philosophy sets it apart from other fast-food chains. 2. Analyze the original values for the start-up company and how it remains strong today. . Enumerate three (3) factors that contributed to Five Guys’ success in such a short time and what effect, if any, external markets had on these factors. 4. Assess how ethical and social practices are part of the Five Guys’ culture and provide examples to support your choices. 5. Use at least five (5) quality academic resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not quality as academic resources. Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements: Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions. †¢Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length. The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are: Examine the private enterprise systems, drivers of change on the system, ethical and social responsibilities of business, and the requirements for success in today’s business environment. †¢Analyze the factors that drive supply and demand, different types of market structures in a free enterprise system, and factors of stability in a nation’s economy. †¢Use technology and information resources to research issues in contemporary business. †¢Write clearly and concisely about contemporary business using proper writing mechanics.